1. Why was the year 1989 one of the most momentous in the twentieth century?
2. Describe the different visions of the U.S. role in the post-Cold War world as identified by President George H.W. Bush and President Clinton.
3. Explain Clinton’s political strategy of combining social liberalism with conservative economic ideas.
4. What are the causes and consequences of the growing “prison-industrial complex”?
5. Identify the factors that, in the midst of 1990s prosperity, increased the levels of inequality in the United States.
6. What are the similarities and differences between immigration patterns of the 1990s and earlier?
7. What main issues gave rise to the Culture Wars of the 1990s?
8. Assess the role of the Supreme Court in the presidential election of 2000.
9. What is globalization, and how did it affect the United States in the 1990s?
10. What is meant by “American exceptionalism”? In what ways is the United States different from the rest of the world and how is it similar?
_____________________________________________________________
A. What were the major international initiatives of the Clinton administration in the aftermath of the Cold War?
B. What forces drove the economic resurgence of the 1990s?
C. What cultural conflicts emerged in the 1990s?
D. How did a divisive political partisanship affect the election of 2000?
E. What were the prevailing ideas of American freedom at the end of the century?
History 221 Winter 2016 
1. Why was the year 1989 one of the most momentous in the twentieth century?
1989 was the year that communism falls in eastern Europe and China.
In April of 1989, peaceful protesters gathered at Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Their purpose is to protest the longstanding reign of communism in their country. This was not a small unnoted protest, upwards of 1 million Chinese workers, teachers, and government employees gather for the cause of greater democracy. The protest was inspired by previous events in the Soviet Union and many successful American institutions. Students at the protest even erected a statue in the likeness of the Statue Of Liberty and called it The Goddess of Democracy and freedom. This peaceful protest lasted for nearly three months before Chinese troops were sent in to clear the square. Even today China is hesitant and reluctant to talk about the way they handled the protest. Troops were reported to kill protesters, although we don’t know how many. Some believe the number dead was in the thousands.
Later that year, demonstrations reached their peak in Eastern Germany. Pro-Democracy had infected Eastern Berlin. Two years earlier, President Reagan gave his infamous speech in which he said ,”Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!.” That speech was given as advice and council for peace to the Soviets, and Gorbachev decided to follow that advice in November of 1989. He declared that the USSR would not be involved with any of the demonstrations. Protesters gathered at the wall in eastern Berlin and took down sections of the wall by themselves. The wall had been there since 1961 and was the symbol of communism in Europe. This started a chain reaction in Europe. Countries that were communist began to give up power. This was a huge victory for Democracy.
Democracy also won in South Africa. After four years of prison, Nelson Mandela was elected President. This ended the apartheid and white controlled government in that country. Democracy and home rule took Africa and South America like a wave.
This year was so momentous because of the wave of democracy that took the earth.
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6. What are the similarities and differences between immigration patterns of the 1990s and earlier?
For whatever reason, in the 1990’s, America found herself dealing with many more immigrants than she ever had before.
One of the similiarities of the surge of immigration in the 1990’s and earlier, is that both came after large scale economic growth in America. Generally speaking, most immigrants came to America for better economic opportunities, educational opportunities, and the prosperity of their families. In the past, most jobs for immigrants came in factories or large companies due to the demand for unskilled labor. In more modern times, we see that 2/3 of jobs in America originate in the suburbs. Another similarity for a certain percentage of immigrants during both time periods, was the necessity to flee war torn countries.
Additionally, those immigrants were much more diverse than before. Earlier in the century, Europe had been the primary supplier of newcomers, but from the 1960’s on, there was a gradual shift in who came to America. From 1965 to 2010, 38 million new people came, as compared to 27 million from the years 1880 to 1924.
In this new immigration flood, two groups represented the majority. Over 50% came from Latin America. Their centers of congregation became Los Angeles and Miami. Mexican Americans were the majority of Spanish speaking immigrants. The other major group came from Asia. 40% of them came with higher education, higher than any other immigrant group ever. Along with these newcomers came interracial marriage. That is one main difference from any earlier time. One half of Asian marriages were to non-Asian partners.
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8. Assess the role of the Supreme Court in the presidential election of 2000.
The role of the Supreme Court in the election of 2000 is a confusing one. One of the closest and most tense elections in American history, Florida became the hotbed of confusion as it was unclear which candidate had taken the 25 electoral votes which Florida had to offer. After several recounts, it remained uncertain which candidate had secured the votes. Though George W. Bush had originally been declared victor, the wide array of voting methods in Florida made for a murky mess for those in charge to sort through. With all this confusion, the Supreme Court was enlisted to resolve the election debacle.
As the recount proceeded, the Court decided by a five person majority that the it was to be stopped. During this cessation period, the Justices debated whether or not the manner in which the recount was happening was constitutional or whether it was in violation of the “Equal Protection Clause” of the Fourteenth Amendment. Essentially, the argument was that every county had its own method of voting and of recounting the vote and that this disparity was unconstitutional. The opposition to this argument was that the “intent of the voter” was sufficient enough to satisfy the equal protection provision. Eventually, the Court ruled that the statewide standard (that a “legal vote” is “one in which there is a ‘clear indication of the intent of the voter'”) could not guarantee that each county would count the votes in a “constitutionally permissible fashion.” In other words, Florida was in violation of the Equal Protection Clause; as fair as one might try to make a recount, or however well justified a recount might be, it was not constitutional. Interestingly enough, however, the Court clarified that this ruling only applied to this election this year in this state. Indeed, there are many states that have various ways of recording votes, and if the Court were to apply this reasoning to all states, then suddenly the whole election would have been compromised.
The real role of the Supreme Court in the election of 2000 was to prevent it from dragging on any longer. The ruling was given on December 12, 2000 and many voters felt exhausted by the lengthy drawn out process. Once the Court ruled, the recount was ended and the victory, which was originally given to George W. Bush, was reaffirmed. This vote gave Bush one vote more than necessary to have the required number of electorates to secure the presidency.
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9. What is globalization, and how did it affect the United States in the 1990s?
Globalization is the merging of national and international markets in such a way that erases the lines between countries and politics and allows for people, products, ideas, and any other commodity to be freely exchanged across the globe. Though this had been occurring since the Silk Road, this phenomenon received renewed attention during the late 20th century, especially during the 1990s.
Though the effects of globalization in the United States during the 1990s are multitudinous, two of the most prominent are illustrated in the propagation of the Internet and a “new economy,” as well as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
With the creation of the Internet, many spoke of a new economy that would allow more efficiency in business, as well as information exchange, that would spread across the globe. Suddenly, anyone anywhere in the world could connect with someone else and conduct a business transaction. The greater effect, though, remained with big business that expanded rapidly during the decade. In a boom that was similar to the rapid growth of the 1920s, the stock market saw huge investment in “dot com” companies. One issue that arose from this, which changed how a traditional market was ran, was that these companies seemed to never any actual worth. Instead, the power seemed to rest with their imagined wealth. Eventually, the smoke and mirrors of this new economy vanished, and the entire market suffered. Thus, one of the effects of globalization in the 1990s was that the US economy was hit with a powerful economic recession which took three years to recover from. Over time, fallout from this recession, as well as other action which was taken to facilitate this “new economy” (such as the repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act) would be felt into the 21st century.
NAFTA was also a visible result of the effects of globalization. This agreement would have more tangible consequences in terms of jobs and economic shifts. With the creation of a “free-trade” zone in North America, the United States government consented to a “no tariff policy”. Because of this, many companies began to move their manufacturing cities to Mexico, where they could get as much product for a much less price. This movement was a part of the job loss woes that concerns many Americans today, as there has been an increasing displacement of American workers as many companies shift their jobs overseas. Globalization, however, also encourages the belief that the rise of the global economy will stimulate wealth across the world. As more manufacturing jobs have moved to other continents and countries, the type of jobs that make up American wealth have also shifted to jobs requiring a higher level of education. This, in turn, has drawn jobs from other countries, as many of the countries that are losing those jobs complain of a “brain drain”.
Overall, globalization revolutionized the traditional American economy that it did in reality become a new economy. As union jobs continue to dwindle in proportion to the total amount of American jobs, it is only an indication of the global reach of capitalism and how it is no longer limited to a select few. Indeed, globalization, some could argue, provided the downfall of the Soviet Union and an end to the Cold War, an end which American military might had not been able to accomplish. Money, it turns out, yet again proves that it makes the world go ’round.
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10. What is meant by “American exceptionalism”? In what ways is the United States different from the rest of the world and how is it similar?
Put simply, American Exceptionalism is the awesomeness level of America compared to what we used to be, and also compared to everyone else. By the year 2000, America had reached some very impressive standards of living. People were healthier and wealthier than we had ever been before. In the year 1900 the average person had no telephone, no car, didn’t graduate from High School, and didn’t even have indoor plumbing. People also lived shorter lives as well. By the year 2000 the average lifespan had reached 74 for men and 79 for women as opposed to 46 and 48 respectively. People were enjoying healthier and more productive lives.
In regards to other counties, we are different in the fact that we are more capitalist. Europe had chosen a more socialist road, and the things that come with it. The majority of European citizens said it is more important for the government to secure freedom of want rather than freedom to pursue personal goals. America was also polled as being more religious than our European brothers and sisters. Also, more Americans believed they were being protected and blessed by God.
Along with all these good things comes some evil. Compared to European countries, America had more gun murders than all of the others combine. Our culture and people had become more violent. Other countries provide more social “rights” to their citizens like paid vacation and things like that, but as I said before, they are more of a socialist system so things like that are certain to occur before America.
The world had made large strides to come to this point. If we looked outward, we would see similar trends to our own country in other like England, Germany, and Canada. As a whole, we have all come a longs way in the past century.
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9. What is globalization, and how did it affect the United States in the 1990s?
Globalization is integrating and having interaction between people, companies, and cultures from around the world. One big impact Globalization had on the US is in terms of the economy and how companies were able to go about marketing around the world. With the rapid development of better, faster, and more reliable computers, the Internet made it possible for companies to expand their markets even further around the world. The internet was not only useful for worldwide economic expansion, it also provided a way for people all around the world to connect and expose others to different cultures and lifestyles. The internet was a medium through which all the world could be inter-connected. Globalization also helped cement the United States’s position in the world as the dominant power. With the collapse of communism in very recent history, the US had free reign to expand democracy and capitalism around the globe, Many communist regimes were replaced with democracy and the the shadow of communism that capitalist nations felt by nations like the USSR and China all but vanished. The US was also able to help the development of new governments, such as the system under Nelson Mandela. Lastly, the NAFTA united most of the western hemisphere in a trade alliance that involved the US, Canada, and Mexico. Together these three countries were able to strengthen their economies and have a stronger presence on the world scene due to better internal conditions.
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5. Identify the factors that, in the midst of 1990s prosperity, increased the levels of inequality in the United States.
America has always been a nation of unequal economic prosperity among its citizens. However during the New Deal era and postwar economic boom the income inequality dropped but rapidly picked up in the 1970’s and continued into the 90’s and 2000’s.
At a time of economic expansion and steady increase in wages, many Americans were returning back to the workforce. Despite the work opportunities, it becomes difficult for the poor and middle class to earn enough to live while the rich became richer. In the start of the 2000’s over 50 percent of the workforce worked for less than 14 dollars per hour. Lower class Americans were unable to keep up with economic inflation as prices for goods and services increased. Besides income, there has been a decline in union membership and many workers lost their voices to the employer and their benefits.
Another factor of this unbalanced prosperity was due to American companies moving manufacturing jobs, banking accounts, and legal services overseas for the cheaper labor. In 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement OR NAFTA allowed American companies to expand their business to other countries. For example, Wal-Mart became the largest employer in Mexico. Bill gates, the face of Microsoft mad as much wealth as 40 percent of America’s population added together. Outsourcing jobs increased the pay and the posh lifestyle of top executives.
In addition, the War on Drugs and the stream of immigrants during the 90s contributed to the level of American inequality. Minority groups such as African Americans and Hispanics were the target when it came to the War on Drugs by facing jail time. These groups had limited access to job training or skills that would enable them to the prosperity the 90s brought. Immigrants faced education and language barrier which restricted their opportunity to economic success. The social and living connection between the rich, middle-class and poor Americans continues to divide based on income.
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4. What are the causes and consequences of the growing “prison-industrial complex”?
During the 1990’s crime rates in the country dropped dramatically due to more effective urban police tactics, but because of the laws, the prison population did not grow. While the image of politicians wanting to be “tough on crime” started to form in the 1970’s it wasn’t until 2008 that the prison population hit an all-time high. What caused this high were the “wars” that successive presidents had started to launch on the use of illegal drugs.
Drug use and addiction had started to be seen as “a violation of the law rather than as a disease”. This caused the number of prisoners convicted for nonviolent drug offenses to rise dramatically, because the government and politicians started to focus on putting criminals in prison for long periods of time rather than treating them in a rehabilitation facility. The state governments also “increased the penalties for crime and reduced the possibility of parole.”
The huge increase of prisoners led to the growing of the “prison-industrial complex”. Communities that were struggling economically due to deindustrialization, saw this growth as an opportunity for jobs and income. The book says that in 2008 “five states spent more money on their prison systems than on higher education.” All this so that they could boost the economy of their different communities. We also see that private companies started to hire out inmates for as little as 3 dollars per day. They did this because it was cheaper to pay an inmate than to pay someone who had an education and no criminal charges.
While there are pro’s and con’s to the “prison-industrial complex”, I think that overall it has helped the United States. It has created more jobs for people, and in some cases it has provided inmates the opportunity to work and earn at least a little bit of money so that when they do get out, they at least have something to work with. While it may not help every prisoner that gets out, it helps some to not revert back to their old ways. I also think that it has been good to increase stricter laws on drug use, because even thought it might be a non-violent crime, drugs can quickly cause someone to become violent, when they get desperate enough.
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6. What are the similarities and differences between immigration patterns of the 1990s and earlier?
Immigration, always a hotly contested American issue, resurfaced strongly in the ’90’s in all kinds of old (and new) ways.
More immigrants entered the United States between 1965 and 2010 than had entered between 1880 and 1924, which is typically remembered as a time of high immigration. Large numbers of people were pouring into the United States in search of a better life and broader opportunities – that did not change from earlier. The U.S. still saw immigrants fleeing economic, religious, ethnic, and political oppression enter its borders searching for the American dream.
Another similarity in immigration was the concentration of immigrants in large, urban areas. Miami, Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York City filled their cities and suburbs with immigrants, and ethnic communities within the cities emerged. Reminiscent of Jewish, Irish, and Italian enclaves of the late 1800’s, this part of immigration was something America had come to expect.
However, some parts of this immigrant crowd looked quite different from the waves before. High-economic-status, college-educated migrants joined the ranks, searching for opportunities in a rapidly-expanding professional world that were unavailable in their developing countries. This is in contrast to earlier years where a greater majority of immigrants were of the less-educated, working class.
The background of these immigrants also changed dramatically. Before the 1960’s, the majority of immigrants were European. The new wave of immigration brought instead large numbers of Latinos and Asians and increased percentages from Africa and other parts of the world (in fact, twice as many Africans entered the U.S. between 1970 and 2000 as had during the entire Atlantic Slave trade). These growing populations started to change the racial composition of the United States and non-white immigrants skyrocketed.
Along with this racial diversity, immigration in the ’90’s revealed an American culture that had changed drastically since earlier immigration periods. In the past, many immigrants were racially despised and persecuted such as Catholics, Irish, and Mexicans. Thought the ’90’s were surely still plagued by these problems, the vibes of societal acceptance were much stronger than before. Diversity was beginning to be a source of pride and widely accepted, as many Americans tried to look past prejudices of the past.
Asian immigrants had perhaps the most drastic turn of fortunes in this respect. Once barred nearly entirely from immigrating to the United States and deeply feared and despised in the World War II era, Asian immigrants rose in numbers, flourished, and became admired in the U.S. Foner mentions that the strong community identity and emphasis on education in Asian countries aided Asian youth in excelling in educational pursuits. Most Asian stereotypes after this new era of immigration became positive instead of negative.
Immigration in the late 20th century to the United States had perhaps the same roots as old immigration, but a new face. Immigration will continue to evolve as our country and our world change.
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10. What is meant by “American exceptionalism”? In what ways is the United States different from the rest of the world and how is it similar?
American Exceptionalism refers to the special nature of the United States and a uniquely powerful and free nation, based on personal liberty and democratic ideals. Over the course of the 20th century, the United States experienced exponential economic and political growth. It became the leading world power, and fostered a place for incredible progress in medicine, technology, and equality.
However, many of the advances in the United States are normal in many economically advanced counties. Improved conditions for women, better health and longer lifespan, suburbanization, and declines in industrial employment have been seen throughout the world as countries become economically stable and powerful. However, the United States is set apart even other economically advanced countries in several ways.
More even than other developed countries, the United States seemed more fixed on individual progress and opportunity as opposed to collective and broad social welfare, reporting much higher number of people who believe the government should guarantee freedom to pursue individual goals over freedom from want. In addition to government backing on individual rights and protection, the United States has traditionally been much more religious than any other developed county, with the majority of people stating affiliation to some religious belief or denomination. Additionally, many of these feel that their religion ties strongly to their belief that America is blessed or protected by God, being a chosen land.
However, not all of “American Exceptionalism” are positive. In addition to standing apart from the world in significant economic or religious realms, the United States unfortunately has its less appealing aspects. For example, the United States has more murders by guns than any other country in the world, leading even the next country by over 11,000 murders. Additionally, the United States’ emphasis on freedom to pursue individual goals over social welfare has been the cause of dismal social equality and social rights. The United States lags behind all other developed countries in many social rights including paid vacation and sick days, which American employers are not required to offer. In addition, the United States is one of only four countries in the world that have no national assurance of paid maternity leave, along with Liberia, Papua New Guinea, and Swaziland.
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C. What cultural conflicts emerged in the 1990’s?
The 1990’s saw a dramatic increase in the concept of globalization. As people, ideas, and finances spread outward, cultures came into contact with each other in a way never before available. With internet and media rising, communication between distant places was suddenly bridged. Many cultures were able to observe other cultures that had desirable aspects they wanted. Protests were frequent during this decade, seen frequently concerning communism. The Battle of Seattle demonstrates the difference in views leading to conflict among environmentalists and the corporate world. The Tiananmen Square demonstrations, ending in thousands of deaths, demanded reforms in government, even raising a figure similar to the Statue of Liberty symbolizing the democratic freedoms of America. US politics, seen in Clinton’s administration, sought to settle international disputes from prior years, being only partially successful. With this focus on mending international conflicts, an emphasis on human rights resurfaced. People became more concerned with defining themselves as human rights activists, but still defended military use and American superiority. As described in the Foner book, Human rights were often used as justification for intervention in affairs usually left to the individual nation. During the 90’s inequality rose quickly. Middle class income rose, but the rich income rose astronomically, widening the gap between middle and lower class and the rich. During this time, culture grouped together to achieve common goals. People began associating with their religion, ethnicity, or class to define who they were an individual. Everyone belonged to some group, whether they wanted to or not. A flood of European immigrants to the US, bringing increased racial and cultural diversity to America. With increased awareness of American diversity, a new concern over cultural fragmentation began. Groups spread awareness of their own unique identity, while maintaining a proud heritage. This decade brought heightened awareness of cultures, and with it conflicts of interest.
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1.) 1. Why was the year 1989 one of the most momentous in the twentieth century?
1989 saw a myriad of changes in political ideologies as many more people across the world demanded more democracy, particularly in places like China, Berlin, and eastern Europe. Communism in Eastern Europe for the Soviet Union had come to a complete halt. In November 9, the Berlin Wall which stood as a symbolism of the Cold Ward division, was destroyed which symbolized the end of the Soviet Union and Cold War. The Communist government gave up its empirical power over other Soviet led countries and granted each of them one by one, its own sovereignty. Since President Gorbachev promised that they would not intervene against protests or any other public demand for democracy, the majority of the collapse of the Soviet Union and communism was peaceful in a term what was called the “velvet revolution” (Foner pg 1064). Freedom and Human Rights weren’t only being demanded in Eastern Europe but also in other places like Communist China.
When tens of thousand of students protested in Tiananmen Square in Beijing demanding more democracy, was an even greater example how much communism had collapse. Democracy seemed to sink in the people’s mind around the world. One of the major reasons was the fact the human rights and equal rights were at the forefront of the debate. Worker, teacher, and even government officials joined the protest in China nearly 1 million demonstrated frustration with the communist government of China. The statue of the Goddess of Democracy was demonstrated during the protest which symbolized a sense of liberty and freedom in relations to the Statue of Liberty in New York City. Sadly, the demonstration was violently intervened by the Chinese government which resulted in many casualties. However, China even though still communist after, began to freely open up more economically allowing free economic zones in certain areas and joining the capitalist agenda in the U.S. This of course carried on till the 1990s which was considered “the decade for democracy” Nelson Mandela was relased from prison and became president of South Africa and eventually ending apartheid.
Overall, 1989, saw the long conflicts of the Cold War finally come to an end. Capitalism and democracy seemed to have prevailed over the communist Soviet Union ideology. 1989 really sparked the debate for human rights which was the main result for the protests in China and the collapse of the Soviet Union and Communism in Eastern Europe.
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3. Explain Clinton’s political strategy of combining social liberalism with economic conservatism.
Clinton, when elected, offered support for abortion rights, and pushed for aid and action to be given to racial minorities, specifically those of African-American heritage. Through these policies, he appealed to the more liberalism voters. In the economic sector, he held a more conservative stance and planned a reduction of the over complicated bureaucracy that surrounded Washington as well as pull back welfare support. In doing so, he appealed to the conservative voters. While in office, he upheld his promises and organized a racial and gender diverse cabinet. By standing firm on some of his promises he gained the initial favor of American citizens. He was smart in combining liberalism and conservatism because he was able to reach more demographics than if he had stuck to one side versus the other. By appealing to both halves of the country, he received twice as many votes. During his first term, he pushed hard for the military and their strict gay rights ban. He also implemented a program that helped low-income makers and family be able to raise themselves above the poverty line. He was smart and use his charisma to appeal to a majority of the country.
7. What main issues gave rise to the Culture Wars of the 1990s?
With the ending of the long-standing cold war between the United States and the USSR, many had hoped, like after other times of conflict, that a new era of peace would begin; starting with ethnic and cultural cooperation. Unfortunately, this was not the case. Rather, further divides were found between cultural, ethnic and religious divisions. Almost every area in the world felt an increase in religious followings and also religious fundamentalism that was often found in the center of acts of domestic and international terrorism. Vast amounts of immigrants that flooded into the United States from Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America had created a very visible divide within cities across the country. In the larger cities such as Los Angeles and New York, the new immigrants often segregated themselves within the urban areas. Whole neighborhoods could often be found speaking and exchanging from the same culture or religion. This visible self-segregation only deepened already established divisions. The largest of these groups hailed from Latin America. Latino communities sprouted quickly all along the States’ southern borders in places such as California and Texas. These communities sadly were found to be much poorer than other urban areas. Fighting for low-income jobs and struggling with the education system, these areas soon became riddled with crime in order for the people to find an easier way of living. In contrast, large groups of Asian immigrants seemed to quickly surpass caucasian peopel in the workforce and were soon making more than the avergae white family. They did well in school a whole generation found jobs in the highest ranking markets, such as the legal, medical, and enginerring fields. African Americans were also one of the large immigrant groups during this era. They came with university level education and sought jobs such as teachers and physicians. The influx of qualified persons led to a competitive job market as there were more people seeking proffesional positions than there were availabe. With the lack pf jobs to support the popualtion, there were many people who turned to crime to support themselved and their families. There was an increase in the prison population and a lot of money was spent in order to maintain the costs to keep the prisons running. Debates over ethnic identity emerged and were heated . Traditional republicans pushed for family values to be recognized while many new ethnic groups did not see the need to follow these values. Democrats wanted to solve the racial issues of the time and spent much of their time cobatting these. Because of so many different opinions, many divisions were created amongst the american populous. These divisions still cause debate today.
B. What forces drove the economic resurgence of the 1990s?
After both the Reagan and Bush administrations, the American economy suffered major decifcits that left the country scrambling to become economically sound. A resugence in the 1990s offered the people some peace of mind as the economy bounced back a bit. A major part of this was in part to the emerging technology inducrty that centered around computers. Products such as microchips, videocassette recorders, cell phones, and digital cameras were very popular and were manufatured in mass at educed prices so soon, everyone had one. The stock market felt a large boom which in turn helped the economy. Outsourcing jobs both helped and injured the economy as it lowered consumer prices, but it also put millions of people out of jobs. Agreements such as NAFTA helped to maintain economic stability in the US during this time and conitue to benefit the country today.
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CH 27 D. How did a divisive political partisanship affect the election of 2000?
The election of 2000 is remarkable at first glance primarily because of the exceptionally narrow margin that decided the election and secondly because voter turnout was exceptionally low. These two circumstances are secondary effects of political partisanship and prevalent cultural trends at the time.
During the campaign the United States was digesting the Whitewater scandal and impeachment proceedings of President Clinton, who despite retaining popularity throughout the proceedings and being a moderate in many respects. Made people, especially the political planners and wealthy campaign donors, ready for a departure from the previous presidency. The two main candidates who emerged were George W. Bush and Al Gore. During the election campaign fewer people watched the presidential debates than had watched the Nixon-Kennedy debates 40 years previously even though the US population was much larger. Even those who watched the debate would have learned very little about either candidate’s viewpoints on issues such as healthcare, race relations, or income inequality. Any information the campaigns put out was carefully shaped through media consultants and public opinion polls.
When the voters went to the polls, faced with low information and relatively ambiguous candidates on each party then voting along party lines was not uncommon. New England, the West Coast, the Great Lakes, and large urban areas; traditional Democratic strongholds voted strongly in favor of Al Gore. Rural and primarily white areas voted in favor of George Bush. Later analysis of the votes would discover that women favored voting for Al Gore by about 11% and men preferred George Bush by about the same margin. One Candidate who did seem to have a solid platform to run on was independent Ralph Nader, who focused his message on environmental issues and appealed to voters primarily in the left. This led to a successful campaign, for an independent, but competed primarily for votes with people who would have likely voted for Al Gore. It is possible that the independent candidate who received a fraction of the votes had the largest effect in deciding the 2000 election.
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CH 27 A. What were the major international initiatives of the Clinton administration in the aftermath of the Cold War?
The main focus of the Clinton presidency was the protection of human rights. This task quickly proved more complicated than expected as leaders who had spent the previous decades thinking of the world in sharp black and white contrast during the cold war were having to adapt to the grey scale of much more politically and morally ambiguous situations. Now world leaders had to balance human rights, economic interests, strategic interests, and lack of clear guidelines for humanitarian intervention overseas. These interests often conflicted and complicated response to international emergencies.
The Balkan Crisis was the first large scale emergency was the ethnic cleansing in the remnants of Yugoslavia in 1993. These events took place within easy reach of many NATO countries who were able to mobilize an armed force to act as peacekeepers. This process was repeated 6 years later in Kosovo.
When humanitarian crisis’s emerged in nations where local governments were not as well established or in the relative backwaters of the international community government responses were more complicated. In 1994 the tribal genocide in Rwanda cost the lives of over 800,000 people and created 2 million refugees before any kind of international response could be organized.
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) became increasingly important as they could often operate across borders with relative ease. NGOs became increasingly involved in initiatives such as health care, woman’s rights, and other human rights. While governments retained the role as supplying military intervention when deemed necessary. And international communities such as the UN took over the role as international court for issues dealing with human rights abuses.
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CH 23 A. What series of events and ideological conflicts prompted the Cold War?
At the end of World War II the United States and Soviet Union were posturing themselves globally claiming to be promoting freedom and social justice while defending their own security. Each party viewed its social system as the best and only social system and a model that the rest of the world to follow.
To the United States, freedom meant not only the ability to choose leaders through democratic elections but also “a higher standard of living for the entire nation; maximum employment for workers and farmers; greater employment.” The Soviet Union, while not particularly dedicated to the ideas of democratic elections promoted social justice and freedom through employment and economic equality.
In order to create a buffer between itself and any major powers in Europe the Soviet Union elected to retain the territories of Romania, East Germany, Poland, and Bulgaria and installed pro communist, essentially puppet governments in these territories. The reasoning for this can be seen easily as Russia was invaded directly in both World Wars I and II with great loss of human life and infrastructure on each occasion. These buffer states would serve as an area to repel invaders before they could reach the Russian border. This creation of heavily fortified satellite states in Europe became known as the Iron Curtain.
At about the same period of time the Iron Curtain began falling in eastern Europe, the United States received the Long Telegram from George Kennan. This message informed President Truman that the goal of communism was to expand their ideology and power throughout the world. The document also advised that only the United States had the power to “contain” the spread of communism. The main means of containment were financial aid to foreign governments who were considered anti communist or the building up of US military bases on foreign soil.
While each state sought to make the world a better place and to ensure the security of its own borders. Mutual distrust caused each state to viewed each move as a potential threat. The succession of moves to further the national interest of one state and the response by the other state became the long drawn out chess game which we now know as the Cold War.
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